Teaching English to Young Learners - Learning Words



LEARNING WORDS

PAPER
Submitted as an Assignment of Teaching English to Young Learners Course



By:
Adhe Syahputra (P2A418009)
Ahmad Yuharfani (P2A418011)
Arif Ridiawan (P2A418012)
Natalia Suskandani (P2A418010)
Retno Wulan (P2A418016)


Advisor:
Dr. Sri Wachyunni, S.S., M.Hum., M.A.

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE PROGRAM
JAMBI UNIVERSITY
2018


TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
A. INTRODUCTION
B. DISCUSSION
B.1. Vocabulary Development in Children’s Language Learning
B.2. Organization of Words in a Language
B.3. Learning and Teaching Vocabulary
B.4. Children’s Vocabulary Learning Strategies
C. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES




           A.    INTRODUCTION

The aim of this talk is to discuss the most important issues and challenges in the teaching and assessment of young learners. Due to the world–wide spread of early English, building up vocabulary is central to learn Foreign Language (FL) to young learners.  (Carter and McCarthy 1988; Coady and Huckin 1997; Schmitt and Meara 1997; Singleton 1999; Read 2000) based on their research vocabulary has moved to centre stage in Foreign Language Teaching.
There are some parts discussed in this paper. The first part, we will discuss about vocabulary development, learners still build up their First Language vocabulary. In planning and teaching a FL, the teacher need to take account of the first language background to know what will work or may too difficult for learners. In the second part, we will present different aspects of vocabulary knowledge, and sets out principles for teaching that can help learners to build up vocabulary. In the third part, we will discuss the implication to the activities for vocabulary learning. The final section describes on strategy research, how children can help to develop their autonomy as self-directed vocabulary learners.

          B.     DISCUSSION

B.1. Vocabulary Development in Children’s Language Learning
B.1.1. Word as Unit
Vocabulary development is about learning word, but it is about much more than that, children will ask what a particular word means, or how to say a word in the foreign language, and in the learning to read, the word is a key unit in to building up skills and knowledge. The role of words as language units begins with the early use of nouns for naming objects in first language acquisition, end use of other words to express the child’s wants and needs, example given more or no, many of these words are names of things, acquired to ostensive definition, in the example by the child seeing or touching the object that a word refers to. So that when a young child says ‘daddy book’ she may be trying to get her father to give her a book or to read a book to her, with the context of use making the intended meaning quite clear. As Vigotsky said, although the children may use the same words as adults, they may not hold the same meanings for those words.
B.1.2. Vocabulary Size
When the researchers set out to measure vocabulary size, or how many words someone knows, they have to make simplifying assumptions and decisions. For example, in many measures, only receptive knowledge is measured: a person is said to know a word if they can recognize its meaning when they see it. Realistic target for children learning a foreign language might be around 500 words a year will give a good learning condition.
B.1.3. What It Means to Know a Word
What do you do when you learn a new word in English? Do you look it up in a dictionary in order to find the meaning of this word in your native language? Do you then write this word down or repeat it several times trying to remember both the word and its meaning? Or instead of using a dictionary, do you ask a native speaker to explain the meaning of word to you? Those are certainly great strategies, but unfortunately they are not efficient for effective vocabulary learning. In fact, the meaning of the word is only one of the several components of word knowledge, which helps language learners successfully acquire new words and appropriately use them in different contexts.
Here is doubt that learning a new word in English assumes understanding what the word actually means. And of course, you can implement a whole variety of strategies to get to the meaning of the word. You can translate the word into your native language, you can ask a native speaker to explain the word to you, you can look up the definition of the word in a monolingual dictionary, or you can also try to figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word from the context. It’s up to you which of these strategies you use to get to the meaning of the word. Keep in mind though that many English words have more than one meaning, so if you are consulting a dictionary in order to find the meaning of the word, make sure you learn the right meaning! For example, in the sentence “She went to the bank of the river”, you wouldn’t learn the meaning of the word bank as “a business that keeps and lends money”.
B.1.4. Developing Meanings in Childhood
When given a cue word like dog or table, younger children tend to make syntagmatic associations, choosing a linking idea in a word from a different part of speech, or word class, so the noun cue words might produce verb responses bark or eat, we can also think of these links as ‘thematic’ responses, in the ideas link together in a kind if theme. Older children are more likely to respond to cue words with words from the same word class; animal or chair, these are called paradigmatic responses (Verhallen and Schoonen 1998), children shift to paradigmatic responses probably reflects other development, they become more able to deal with abstract connections, such as’ a dog is a kind of animal’ and they build up more knowledge of the world, words to go with it and ways of organizing it. Schooling has a major impact on how children’s knowledge and vocabulary develops because it introduces them to formal logical thinking.
B.1.5. Categorization and Word Learning
Research into the types of categories used in early childhood has shown that the middle of a general to specific hierarchy is particularly significant for children, and hence for their foreign language learning (Lakoff 1987; Cameron 1994), here are two examples of hierarchies with the most general concept, or superordinate, at the tip, and the most specific, labeled subordinate, at the bottom
SUPERORDINATE        Furniture                    Animal
BASIC LEVEL               Chair                          Dog
SUBORDINATE             Rocking Chair           Spaniel

The words for basic level concepts are the most commonly used words, they are learnt by children before words higher or lower in the hierarchy and they are the words used in neutral context, example we have always kept dog is more likely to be used than we have always kept spaniels.
B.1.6. Cultural Content in Word Meanings
Words and their meanings are connected in syntagmatic  and paradigmatic patterns as described above. These patterns create network of connections in the mind that have been variously called. ‘schemas’ or schemata, scripts and frames, here are schemas about cultural influenced in learning English as a second language, if someone living in Britain says, I’ll go and fetch the milk, they are still quite likely to men that they will go to the front door and pick up the bottles of milk delivered by a milkman, the schema of milk includes door step deliveries. For someone living outside Britain this is unlikely, and fetching milk may involve a trip to the supermarket.
B.1.7. The Development Children Vocabulary (Summary)
Conclusion from this section and principles for teaching are listed below:
1.      The types of words that children find possible to learn will shift, 5 years old learning foreign language need very concrete vocabulary that connect to the object they can handle or see.
2.      Vocabulary development is about expanding and deepening word knowledge. Children need to meet words again and again.
3.      Words and word knowledge are linked, meeting a word will increase word knowledge and support for understanding and learning.
4.      Basic level words are likely to be more appropriate for younger children older learner can building up superordinate and subordinate vocabulary linked to basic level words they already know.
5.      Older children more able to make connections between the words, they learn and use paradigmatic organization of words and concept as a help in vocabulary learning

B.2. Organization of Words in a Language
In order to teach young learner about words, it is better to understand how many kinds of words are exist. It is known that young learner actively create “meaning” as Piaget stated. Based on meaning, Cameron (2001) asserted that there are 2 kinds of words: Function words and content words.

B.2.1. Function and Content words
Cameron (2001) argued that function words are words that carry grammatical meaning. Function words could be understood when it is put in a context (read: grammatical form). Whereas, content words are words that carry lexical meaning. So, content words could stand alone as it has its own meaning. In addition, Waxman (2016) stated that content words are noun, verb, adjective and adverb. Meanwhile, he also added that function words are auxiliary verb, preposition, article, and conjunctions. Discussing words in English, it is inevitable not to discuss how the words pronounce. English words are pronounced by raising and falling tone or stress. In fact, content words are likely the group of words that get stressed or raising tone. Read the sentence below.
The best time to study is early in the morning or late in the evening”.
It could be seen that content words are stressed (bold words) since it is the most important and carry the meaning in a sentence.
B.2.2. Sense Relation
One of the best ways to enrich vocabulary is through learning its relationship to other words. Lyon in Cameron (2001) argued that content words could connect one word to another in a way which is called as “sense relation”, “semantic relation” or “lexical relation”. Cameron (2001) stated that there are 4 relationships among content words.
1)      Antonym: words that has opposite meaning
e.g.: High – Low, Fat – Thin, Big – Small and so on
2.   Synonym: words that has same or similar meaning.
      e.g.: Sad – Sorrow, Happy – Joy, and so on
3.   Hyponym: example or type of another/
      e.g.: red, yellow, and blue are hyponym of “color”
4.   Meronym: part of another
      e.g.: leaf, root, stem are meronym of “tree”
B.2.3. Teaching Principle
Function words and content words have different roles in constructing meaning so that it would affect the way how to teach it to young learners. Cameron (2001) pointed out that function words could be acquired through repetition in different context. So, it is hoped that the young learners are exposed by various ways of using functions words. Meanwhile, Cameron (2001) stated that content words could be taught more directly. He also suggested that analyzing text could be the media to teach content words.  Learner level and development factors should be considered when using text as a media to enhance young learners’ vocabulary.

B.3. Learning and Teaching Vocabulary
Learning appropriate vocabulary is important for children at the primary level. Vocabulary becomes the central of learning for primary level. As Cameron (2001) mention in Teaching Language to Young learner “building up a useful vocabulary is central to the learning of foreign language at primary level”.
Cameron (2001) pointed out that there are five aspects to be considered in teaching vocabulary for young learner: 1) the dynamic of vocabulary learning, 2) learning the meaning of new word, 3) Attending to form, 4) making strong memory connections and 5) Extending the children’s vocabulary beyond the text book.
B.3.1.The Dynamic of Vocabulary Learning
Hatch and Brown in Cameron (2001) stated that there are five essential steps in vocabulary learning. It could be the guidance for young learner teachers in teaching new vocabulary.
1.      Having sources for encountering new words
2.      Getting clear image, whether visual or auditory or both from the form of the new words.
3.      Learning the meaning of the new words
4.      Making strong memory connection between the forms and meanings of the words
5.      Using the word
From the steps above, it is known that before children are able to use the word, they have to have sources for encountering new words. Source of new word can be constructed by analyzing, investigating, and getting the information by asking other people. Children will find the meaning of the word by their own selves because children are active learner like Piaget mentioned in Cameron (2001). The child is seen as continually interacting with the word around her/him, solving problems that are presented by the environment. It is through taking action to solve problems that learning occurs.
B.3.2. Learning The Meaning of New Word
Cameron (2001) asserted that there are two ways of explaining the meaning of vocabulary that could be done: 1) demonstrating or pictures, 2) verbal explanation. These ways will help teacher explain the meaning of new word easier.
Demonstrating or pictures
a.       Using an object
Teacher brings the real object of the word that she/he would like to explain the meaning, for example bringing a candle to the class and show it to learners. It will make young learner interested and easier to find the meaning.
b.      Using cut-out of figure
Pictures with full of color are also interesting for young learners. It is also easier to explain the meaning of target word through pictures. For example, teacher use potatoes pictures, when he or she want to explain it to the learners.
c.       Using gesture 
To explain the meaning of new word such as feeling, teacher will be easier using gesture. For example, teacher says “I am very happy” and also show happy face.
d.      Performa action
To explain the meaning of word of activity like eating, drinking, playing football, the teacher could do perform by using gesture. It is hoped that students will understand easier through the performance.
e.       Using photograph
One of the effective ways to explain the meaning is by using photograph. For example, when teacher want to explain the word “Ambulance” show the photograph then the learner will know the meaning of the word.
f.        Drawing or diagram on the board
Drawing the new word on the board will help the teacher to explain meaning of the word. For example, when the teacher wants to explain the meaning of the word “elephant”, he/ she draw it in the white board.
g.      Picture from book, TV, video, computer
Book, TV, video or computer could be used as a media to explain the new word.
 Verbal explanation
Cameron (2001) stated that verbal explanation clearly require greater pre-existing knowledge of the language , but even at a fairly simple level, definitions and explanations can help to activate schemas or networks that will turn help in understanding. It is clear that verbal explanation of new word meaning is necessary even in a simple explanation to young learner. The verbal explanations are analytic definition (1), putting the new word in context (2) and translating into other language (3).
1.      Analytical Definition
Analytical definition is the teacher giving definition of the word by mentioning its characteristic and function. The conversation below shows how the teacher explains the meaning of the word “protractor”.
Taken from Teaching language to young Learner Lynne Cameron (2001)
From the example above, the teacher guide the student to get the meaning of word “protractor” by mentioning the function of the word.
2.      Putting the new word in definition context
Explaining the meaning of the word by putting it in the context will guide the learner to understand the meaning of the word. For example, Ambulance takes sick people to hospital.
3.      Translating into another language
Another way to help students to understand a new word in target language is by translating it into students’ mother tongue.  For example, “Ambulance is ambulan”, but in this case, it doesn’t help the learner to do mental work. It is more likely they try to remember it. This hypothesis about the importance of deep processing (Craik and Lockhart in Cameron: 2001)
B.3.3. Attending the Form
            Attending the form of the word is how a word is pronounced and how it is written.
Pronunciation
The teacher could say the word several times in order to clarify the pronunciation. For example
Taken from Teaching language to young Learner Lynne Cameron (2001)

Written
For young learners, the spoken form should be the priority, but written form can be introduced either soon after for learner who are literate in foreign language. It means that written form could be introduced to young learners who could speak well in the target language.
B.3.4. Making Strong Memory Connection
Memorizing activities are needed at the point of learning new words for the first time, but how to build up the memory of the word so that it is available for use in the longer term?
There are five ways to build up the memory of new word for young learners
1.      Thematic organization of vocabulary
Cameron (2001) stated that thematic is things that go together or happen together.  A theme can be seen as including: People+ objects+ actions+ process (combination of action). Children can build up a collage on the theme of shopping that will practice newly learnt words such as shopping bag, change, assistant  or vocabulary for actions and process e.g. stack the shelves, pay the bill, push the trolley.
Through thematic organization, teacher guides young learner to construct strong memory by the relation between the new word and the action. When the young learners remember the word shopping, they will remember activities in shopping.
2.      Organization of vocabulary through relations of wholes to parts
Cameron pointed out that relation whole to parts will connect the new word with the whole parts. It will help the young learner to remember the new word, for example body-arms/ legs-fingers/toes. When young learners remember the word body, they will be easier to remember part of body by pointing or touch it.
3.      Organization of vocabulary in general to specific hierarchies
For example, types of food-vegetable-cabbages.
Cameron (2001) stated that activities to short and categorize will practice vocabulary trough this type of organization. If food words are being learnt, children can sort real items into vegetables and fruit naming the individual items as they go.
Some language game will be helpful this type, for example puzzle, or give the learners pencil and paper they will make a list of words drink, food, sport, clothes. Then one team read out their list item by item. From the explanation above, it could be concluded that organization of vocabulary in general to specific hierarchies could be achieved by playing games.
4.      Organization of vocabulary through words and antonym
Some words that have meanings related through antonym can be placed on lines or clines (sloping lines) that give a picture of the degrees of difference example: hot-warm-cold.  Organizing words by their related meaning can help with memorizing and recycling more abstract words example: always-usually-sometimes-never.
5.      Organizing vocabulary in ad hoc categories
Barsalou in Cameron (2001) stated that this is the name given to collections of things put together on the spur of the moment, example: things to take on a picnic. The unit has a set of vocabulary items introduced through pictures: files, a typewriter, stapler, paper clips, and envelopes.
B.3.5. Extending Children’s vocabulary beyond the text book
The vocabulary of course book for young learners is so predictable, start with words related to Family, the house, the school, and work outwards from the child’s world, bringing in other countries, topics from history and so on.  Even though in FL teaching, vocabulary input is limited. It is clear from talking to teachers that many pupils either fail to learn, or forget, a lot of vocabulary they meet in their early years.
Learners are getting more and interests through the internet, television and video, and computer game. Theirs worlds are much bigger, from much younger ages, and then used to be the case. It’s making easy for young learners to take on much vocabulary.
Working outwards from the text book
The learning process start from the topic of the text book unit, and don’t stop with the words are given. The idea should conditional with the topic that will help extend the words. For example of “Setting at the Bank” that the teachers have already to make related between the topic of learning and situational at the office. Vocabulary extension could begin by asking what types of equipment would be needed for a really up to date office. Then move into people who work there, and what jobs they do, then event that happen there. The teacher can pick up the general specific organization words.
Learners’ choice
Vocabulary learning around the topic start from the learner rather than from the book, by asking to learners what words they want to know and words would like to learn in the FL. It is positive use of first language to guide to the FL, and then translate by using translator or dictionary.
Incidental learning of vocabulary
Young learners learn from their first language words from social interaction with the social environments, then use of stories in the classroom then use the words mostly occur in their life.

B.4. Children’s Vocabulary Learning Strategies
This section deals with the strategies used by children or L2 learners in learning the new words or vocabulary found in the second language process. When a student wants to say something in the second or target language, s/he will find words more struggle than grammar or pronunciation. The acquisition vocabulary at first sight seems straightforward that you need a large number of words to speak a language, hence, to gain and use the language, L2 learners have several strategies that might be different one another in line with their own learning style. Their action helps them understand and remember the vocabulary. Schmit (1997) proposed a different definition related to vocabulary learning strategies, namely discovery and consolidation strategies where discovery means a strategy used by the students to know a new word by finding it in a dictionary or guessing it from its context. On the other hand, consolidation strategy means a technique used in learning new words by asking for help of somebody else to denote where he / she has been up to.
B.4.1. Empirical evidence on the usefulness of strategies
According to Ahmed (1988), Schmit (1997), and Schouten-van Parreren (1992), the strategy use changes with age and that the successful and less successful students vary depend on what strategy they used and on how they used it.
Most recent teaching methods, such as task-based learning or communicative language teaching have focused mainly on the context to define the meaning of a new word or on the traditional techniques such as pictures, explanation and translation in to the students’ L1 (Cook, 2008).
Various strategies made by a student had led to a recommendation for teachers to encourage the students to adopt the following ways:
1)      Guessing meanings by using all the information available in a context,picture or a text
Imagining you are in a hall when several students all over the world come together. Suddenly, a Filipino student you have never met came upon you and fortunately, you have already learnt few Filipino Language, when the student said “Hello, pwede bang magkaroonakongupuandito?” you knew that this means “Hello, could I have *……* here?” unfortunately, you miss a word “upuan”. What would a sentence could be? “can I borrow your book?” “could I borrow this chair?” “can I sit down here?” looking at the probabilities you decide the word “upuan” must mean “seat” in English. This is a natural process of defining a meaning of unknown words that we use daily in our first language. Meanwhile, I recently have read a novel where I revealed the “menacing thoughts entered my mind” or “they are testing a new firecracker”; none of these two words “menacing” and “firecracker” are part of the words I am familiar with and yet I had to notice this while reading. I had presumably decide that “menacing must be something scary or bad while “firecracker” must be a term related to fireworks.
Guessing is a much-used strategy in a second language. Although the word might seem predictable, we could of course go for a wrong conclusion.
2)      Noticing grammatical information about words from the way they are used
A student should be aware of what word they have found. When they read a passage or text, they should also be able to determine where that word is classified into in terms of its part of speech. For instance, “menacing” is classified into adjective and “firecracker” is classified into noun.
When we have come up with a certainty that the word is classified into noun (e.g. firecracker) it would make us easier to grasp its meaning by thinking of noun only in our L1.
3)      Noticing links to similar words in the first language
According to Cook (2008), there may well be some links or relationship between the words in L2 and L1. For example, “chair” in English and “chaise” in French, “tofu” in English and “dòufu”in Chinese. Students could use this as a chance to enhance their vocabulary as well as denoting the meaning or the word it refers to.
4)      Remembering where a word has been encountered before and how that helps with its form and meaning.
This deals much with the repetition and rote learning where the student will be able to figure out one word in one occasion and use it in future occasion. Cook (2008) suggested that the commonest approach for the repetition would be sheer practice where you have to repeat one word over and over again to finally memorize it by heart.
B.4.2. Strategies and young learners
Schmit (1997) as cited in Cameron (2001) argued that different strategies exposed to a children are necessary to help them choose and suit each of their individual learning style. There are some general principles of helping children to learn, they are:
1.      Teachers can model how to use strategies and draw children’s attention explicitly to aspects of strategy use
Teachers can demonstrate the meaning of a word by providing them a picture, or translating the word in their L1. In addition, teachers can show a simple strategy used by guessing the meaning of a word through its context, noticing grammatical information about words from the way they are used, noticing links to similar words in the first language, and keep using the new word to make the students familiar with it.
2.      Teachers can teach the sub-skills needed to make use of strategies
Different strategies will absolutely require different skills, for instance, to find the meaning of a word in a dictionary, (e.g. bilingual dictionary), the teachers should notice their children to alphabetical orders to have effective and efficient strategy. On the other hand, guessing the meaning from its context would need a broad knowledge beyond the situation the students encounter. They have to be able to analyze the situation and potential possibilities they can decide to guess the meaning, however, teachers should also soothe their kid that guessing might come to a wrong conclusion to avoid their frustration from such kind of “failed prediction”. Noticing grammatical information about words from the way they are used could be elaborated by having the students familiar with the common criteria of noun, adjective or verb. While nouns are generally described as things representing a person, thing, or an idea, verbs are action or process that a subject is undergoing, and adjectives are words that add description to things or noun. Generally, verbs or adjectives are always following the nouns where adjectives should have explained the noun it precedes in advance.
In addition, the noticing links to similar words in the first language would lead students to realize and enhance their new word by figuring out the similar word they have in their L1. When the students find new words, the teachers can guide them to imagine the similar word or sound between the L2 and L1 and let the students see what they can make. At this way, teachers should have broader knowledge to link those words.
Finally, teachers should be aware that new words will fade even loose easily right after the student has learnt where no repetition and rote learning are made. Hence, teachers should use this new term over and over again in the classroom and let the students use it to their classmates in daily conversation to make the students more familiar with it.
3.      Classroom tasks can include structured opportunities for using the strategies
As the strategies change with age, teachers should be aware that the easiest way of finding the meaning is through the dictionary, so, the teachers can provide this chance at the very beginning to the children –basic children learning the second language. As the older the children are, the more ‘sophisticated’ strategy should be employed for instance, guessing from its context, link it to similar word they had in the L1, etc. So, different yet structured occasion for using different strategies will work well.
4.      Independent strategy use can be rehearsed in the classroom
Providing the learners structured opportunities for using the strategies will train their own awareness and independency. At this point, teachers will see how the students ‘develop’ in terms of strategy use to find the meaning of new word and teachers can facilitate and practice their strategy in the classroom to see in what extent their students have been capable of.
5.      Young learners can be helped to reflect on the learning process through evaluating their achievements
A good teacher does not only teach the students but also observe and evaluate children’s development. When teachers provide the students an input, they need to ensure the appropriate output the students would have. Learning process is a very crucial input for young learners and thus, teachers should help them reflect on their learning process through evaluating their value. Teachers can have a milestone to help her measure and evaluate the students’ achievement. Through the value, teachers can lead the students to realize and reflect the learning process they have been through. Reflection on a lesson or on their own progress also allows them to build skills in critical thinking that they can apply when they are problem-solving and learning on their own. Teachers organize instruction so that students are the producers, not just the consumers of knowledge. 

         C.    CONCLUSION

Vocabulary has been seen as a major resource for language use. Early foreign language learning offers the chance for learners to build up a solid core of words useful for further learning, together with words that are learnt because they interest or excite young learners at that age. However, early vocabulary learning may be ineffective if words are not consolidated and use regularly. It should not be assumed that children know what they have been taught, for example the content of their course books or syllabus. They know what they have learnt. There are some perspectives related to progression of vocabulary learning.
1.      Over the timescale of primary education, progression in conceptual development impact on vocabulary learning.
2.      Over lesson and years, knowledge about particular words can be seen as a progression from partial knowledge of their meaning, use and from to fuller knowledge.
3.      Over task and lessons, progression in vocabulary learning moves from receptive and initial understanding of what a word means to be able to use it appropriately.


REFERENCES

Cameron, Lynne. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Cook, V. 2008. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching 4th edition. London: Hodder
Education.
Waxman, Sandra. 2016. Early Word Learning: Handbook of Child Psychology, 6th Edition,
accesed on October 21st , 2018.

           



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