Teaching English to Young Learners - Learning Words
LEARNING WORDS
PAPER
Submitted
as an Assignment of Teaching English to Young Learners Course
By:
Adhe Syahputra
(P2A418009)
Ahmad Yuharfani
(P2A418011)
Arif Ridiawan (P2A418012)
Natalia Suskandani
(P2A418010)
Retno Wulan (P2A418016)
Advisor:
Dr. Sri Wachyunni, S.S.,
M.Hum., M.A.
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
GRADUATE PROGRAM
JAMBI UNIVERSITY
2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. INTRODUCTION
B. DISCUSSION
B.1. Vocabulary
Development in Children’s Language Learning
B.2. Organization of
Words in a Language
B.3. Learning and
Teaching Vocabulary
B.4. Children’s
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
C. CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
A.
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this talk is to discuss the most important
issues and challenges in the teaching and assessment of young learners. Due to
the world–wide spread of early English, building up vocabulary is central to
learn Foreign Language (FL) to young learners.
(Carter and McCarthy 1988; Coady and Huckin 1997; Schmitt and Meara
1997; Singleton 1999; Read 2000) based on their research vocabulary has moved
to centre stage in Foreign Language Teaching.
There are some parts discussed in this paper. The
first part, we will discuss about vocabulary development, learners still build
up their First Language vocabulary. In planning and teaching a FL, the teacher
need to take account of the first language background to know what will work or
may too difficult for learners. In the second part, we will present different
aspects of vocabulary knowledge, and sets out principles for teaching that can
help learners to build up vocabulary. In the third part, we will discuss the
implication to the activities for vocabulary learning. The final section
describes on strategy research, how children can help to develop their autonomy
as self-directed vocabulary learners.
B.
DISCUSSION
B.1. Vocabulary Development
in Children’s Language Learning
B.1.1. Word as Unit
Vocabulary development is about learning word, but it
is about much more than that, children will ask what a particular word means,
or how to say a word in the foreign language, and in the learning to read, the
word is a key unit in to building up skills and knowledge. The role of words as
language units begins with the early use of nouns for naming objects in first
language acquisition, end use of other words to express the child’s wants and needs,
example given more or no, many of these words are names of things, acquired to
ostensive definition, in the example by the child seeing or touching the object
that a word refers to. So that when a young child says ‘daddy book’ she may be
trying to get her father to give her a book or to read a book to her, with the
context of use making the intended meaning quite clear. As Vigotsky said,
although the children may use the same words as adults, they may not hold the
same meanings for those words.
B.1.2. Vocabulary Size
When the researchers set out to measure vocabulary
size, or how many words someone knows, they have to make simplifying
assumptions and decisions. For example, in many measures, only receptive
knowledge is measured: a person is said to know a word if they can recognize
its meaning when they see it. Realistic target for children learning a foreign
language might be around 500 words a year will give a good learning condition.
B.1.3. What It Means to Know a Word
What do you do when you
learn a new word in English? Do you look it up in a dictionary in order to find
the meaning of this word in your native language? Do you then write this word
down or repeat it several times trying to remember both the word and its
meaning? Or instead of using a dictionary, do you ask a native speaker to
explain the meaning of word to you? Those are certainly great strategies, but
unfortunately they are not efficient for effective vocabulary learning. In
fact, the meaning of the word is only one of the several components of word
knowledge, which helps language learners successfully acquire new words and
appropriately use them in different contexts.
Here is doubt that
learning a new word in English assumes understanding what the word actually
means. And of course, you can implement a whole variety of strategies to get to
the meaning of the word. You can translate the word into your native language,
you can ask a native speaker to explain the word to you, you can look up the
definition of the word in a monolingual dictionary, or you can also try to
figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar word from the context. It’s up to you
which of these strategies you use to get to the meaning of the word. Keep in
mind though that many English words have more than one meaning, so if you are
consulting a dictionary in order to find the meaning of the word, make sure you
learn the right meaning! For example, in the sentence “She went to the bank of
the river”, you wouldn’t learn the meaning of the word bank as “a business that
keeps and lends money”.
B.1.4. Developing Meanings in Childhood
When given a cue word like dog or table, younger
children tend to make syntagmatic associations, choosing a linking idea in a
word from a different part of speech, or word class, so the noun cue words
might produce verb responses bark or eat, we can also think of these links as
‘thematic’ responses, in the ideas link together in a kind if theme. Older
children are more likely to respond to cue words with words from the same word
class; animal or chair, these are called paradigmatic responses (Verhallen and
Schoonen 1998), children shift to paradigmatic responses probably reflects
other development, they become more able to deal with abstract connections,
such as’ a dog is a kind of animal’ and they build up more knowledge of the
world, words to go with it and ways of organizing it. Schooling has a major
impact on how children’s knowledge and vocabulary develops because it
introduces them to formal logical thinking.
B.1.5. Categorization and Word Learning
Research into the types of categories used in early
childhood has shown that the middle of a general to specific hierarchy is
particularly significant for children, and hence for their foreign language
learning (Lakoff 1987; Cameron 1994), here are two examples of hierarchies with
the most general concept, or superordinate, at the tip, and the most specific,
labeled subordinate, at the bottom
SUPERORDINATE Furniture Animal
BASIC LEVEL Chair Dog
SUBORDINATE Rocking Chair Spaniel
The words for basic level concepts are the most
commonly used words, they are learnt by children before words higher or lower
in the hierarchy and they are the words used in neutral context, example we have always kept dog is more
likely to be used than we have always
kept spaniels.
B.1.6. Cultural Content in Word Meanings
Words and their meanings are connected in
syntagmatic and paradigmatic patterns as
described above. These patterns create network of connections in the mind that
have been variously called. ‘schemas’ or schemata, scripts and frames, here are
schemas about cultural influenced in learning English as a second language, if
someone living in Britain says, I’ll go
and fetch the milk, they are still quite likely to men that they will go to
the front door and pick up the bottles of milk delivered by a milkman, the
schema of milk includes door step deliveries. For someone living outside
Britain this is unlikely, and fetching milk may involve a trip to the
supermarket.
B.1.7. The Development Children Vocabulary (Summary)
Conclusion
from this section and principles for teaching are listed below:
1. The
types of words that children find possible to learn will shift, 5 years old
learning foreign language need very concrete vocabulary that connect to the
object they can handle or see.
2. Vocabulary
development is about expanding and deepening word knowledge. Children need to
meet words again and again.
3. Words
and word knowledge are linked, meeting a word will increase word knowledge and
support for understanding and learning.
4. Basic
level words are likely to be more appropriate for younger children older
learner can building up superordinate and subordinate vocabulary linked to
basic level words they already know.
5. Older
children more able to make connections between the words, they learn and use
paradigmatic organization of words and concept as a help in vocabulary learning
B.2. Organization
of Words in a Language
In order to teach young learner about words, it is
better to understand how many kinds of words are exist. It is known that young
learner actively create “meaning” as Piaget stated. Based on meaning, Cameron
(2001) asserted that there are 2 kinds of words: Function words and content
words.
B.2.1. Function and Content words
Cameron (2001) argued that function words are words
that carry grammatical meaning. Function words could be understood when it is
put in a context (read: grammatical form). Whereas, content words are words
that carry lexical meaning. So, content words could stand alone as it has its
own meaning. In addition, Waxman (2016) stated that content words are noun,
verb, adjective and adverb. Meanwhile, he also added that function words are auxiliary
verb, preposition, article, and conjunctions. Discussing words in English, it
is inevitable not to discuss how the words pronounce. English words are
pronounced by raising and falling tone or stress. In fact, content words are
likely the group of words that get stressed or raising tone. Read the sentence
below.
“The
best time to study is early in the morning or late in the
evening”.
It
could be seen that content words are stressed (bold words) since it is the most
important and carry the meaning in a sentence.
B.2.2. Sense Relation
One of the best ways to enrich vocabulary is through
learning its relationship to other words. Lyon in Cameron (2001) argued that
content words could connect one word to another in a way which is called as
“sense relation”, “semantic relation” or “lexical relation”. Cameron (2001)
stated that there are 4 relationships among content words.
1) Antonym:
words that has opposite meaning
e.g.:
High – Low, Fat – Thin, Big – Small and so on
2. Synonym:
words that has same or similar meaning.
e.g.: Sad –
Sorrow, Happy – Joy, and so on
3. Hyponym:
example or type of another/
e.g.: red,
yellow, and blue are hyponym of “color”
4. Meronym:
part of another
e.g.: leaf,
root, stem are meronym of “tree”
B.2.3. Teaching Principle
Function words and content words have different roles
in constructing meaning so that it would affect the way how to teach it to
young learners. Cameron (2001) pointed out that function words could be
acquired through repetition in different context. So, it is hoped that the
young learners are exposed by various ways of using functions words. Meanwhile,
Cameron (2001) stated that content words could be taught more directly. He also
suggested that analyzing text could be the media to teach content words. Learner level and development factors should
be considered when using text as a media to enhance young learners’ vocabulary.
B.3. Learning and
Teaching Vocabulary
Learning appropriate vocabulary is important for
children at the primary level. Vocabulary becomes the central of learning for
primary level. As Cameron (2001) mention in Teaching Language to Young learner
“building up a useful vocabulary is central to the learning of foreign language
at primary level”.
Cameron (2001) pointed out that there are five aspects
to be considered in teaching vocabulary for young learner: 1) the dynamic of
vocabulary learning, 2) learning the meaning of new word, 3) Attending to form,
4) making strong memory connections and 5) Extending the children’s vocabulary
beyond the text book.
B.3.1.The Dynamic of Vocabulary Learning
Hatch
and Brown in Cameron (2001) stated that there are five essential steps in
vocabulary learning. It could be the guidance for young learner teachers in
teaching new vocabulary.
1. Having
sources for encountering new words
2. Getting
clear image, whether visual or auditory or both from the form of the new words.
3. Learning
the meaning of the new words
4. Making
strong memory connection between the forms and meanings of the words
5. Using
the word
From the steps above, it is known that before children
are able to use the word, they have to have sources for encountering new words.
Source of new word can be constructed by analyzing, investigating, and getting
the information by asking other people. Children will find the meaning of the
word by their own selves because children are active learner like Piaget
mentioned in Cameron (2001). The child is seen as continually interacting with
the word around her/him, solving problems that are presented by the
environment. It is through taking action to solve problems that learning
occurs.
B.3.2. Learning The Meaning of New Word
Cameron (2001) asserted that there are two ways of
explaining the meaning of vocabulary that could be done: 1) demonstrating or
pictures, 2) verbal explanation. These ways will help teacher explain the
meaning of new word easier.
Demonstrating or
pictures
a. Using
an object
Teacher brings the
real object of the word that she/he would like to explain the meaning, for
example bringing a candle to the class and show it to learners. It will make
young learner interested and easier to find the meaning.
b. Using
cut-out of figure
Pictures with full
of color are also interesting for young learners. It is also easier to explain
the meaning of target word through pictures. For example, teacher use potatoes
pictures, when he or she want to explain it to the learners.
c. Using
gesture
To explain the
meaning of new word such as feeling, teacher will be easier using gesture. For
example, teacher says “I am very happy” and also show happy face.
d. Performa
action
To explain the
meaning of word of activity like eating, drinking, playing football, the
teacher could do perform by using gesture. It is hoped that students will
understand easier through the performance.
e. Using
photograph
One of the
effective ways to explain the meaning is by using photograph. For example, when
teacher want to explain the word “Ambulance” show the photograph then the
learner will know the meaning of the word.
f.
Drawing or diagram on the
board
Drawing the new
word on the board will help the teacher to explain meaning of the word. For
example, when the teacher wants to explain the meaning of the word “elephant”,
he/ she draw it in the white board.
g. Picture
from book, TV, video, computer
Book, TV, video or
computer could be used as a media to explain the new word.
Verbal explanation
Cameron (2001) stated that verbal
explanation clearly require greater pre-existing knowledge of the language ,
but even at a fairly simple level, definitions and explanations can help to activate
schemas or networks that will turn help in understanding. It is clear that
verbal explanation of new word meaning is necessary even in a simple
explanation to young learner. The verbal explanations are analytic definition
(1), putting the new word in context (2) and translating into other language
(3).
1.
Analytical
Definition
Analytical
definition is the teacher giving definition of the word by mentioning its
characteristic and function. The conversation below shows how the teacher
explains the meaning of the word “protractor”.
Taken from
Teaching language to young Learner Lynne Cameron (2001)
From the example
above, the teacher guide the student to get the meaning of word “protractor” by
mentioning the function of the word.
2.
Putting
the new word in definition context
Explaining the
meaning of the word by putting it in the context will guide the learner to
understand the meaning of the word. For example, Ambulance takes sick people to hospital.
3.
Translating
into another language
Another way to help students
to understand a new word in target language is by translating it into students’
mother tongue. For example, “Ambulance
is ambulan”, but in this case, it doesn’t help the learner to do mental work.
It is more likely they try to remember it. This hypothesis about the importance
of deep processing (Craik and Lockhart in Cameron: 2001)
B.3.3. Attending the Form
Attending the form of the
word is how a word is pronounced and how it is written.
Pronunciation
The teacher could say the word several times in order
to clarify the pronunciation. For example
Taken from
Teaching language to young Learner Lynne Cameron (2001)
Written
For young
learners, the spoken form should be the priority, but written form can be
introduced either soon after for learner who are literate in foreign language. It
means that written form could be introduced to young learners who could speak
well in the target language.
B.3.4. Making Strong Memory Connection
Memorizing activities are needed at the point of
learning new words for the first time, but how to build up the memory of the
word so that it is available for use in the longer term?
There
are five ways to build up the memory of new word for young learners
1. Thematic
organization of vocabulary
Cameron (2001) stated that thematic is
things that go together or happen together.
A theme can be seen as including: People+ objects+ actions+ process
(combination of action). Children can build up a collage on the theme of
shopping that will practice newly learnt words such as shopping bag, change,
assistant or vocabulary for actions and
process e.g. stack the shelves, pay the bill, push the trolley.
Through thematic organization, teacher
guides young learner to construct strong memory by the relation between the new
word and the action. When the young learners remember the word shopping, they
will remember activities in shopping.
2. Organization
of vocabulary through relations of wholes to parts
Cameron pointed out that relation whole to
parts will connect the new word with the whole parts. It will help the young
learner to remember the new word, for example body-arms/ legs-fingers/toes.
When young learners remember the word body, they will be easier to remember
part of body by pointing or touch it.
3. Organization
of vocabulary in general to specific hierarchies
For
example, types of food-vegetable-cabbages.
Cameron (2001) stated that activities to
short and categorize will practice vocabulary trough this type of organization.
If food words are being learnt, children can sort real items into vegetables
and fruit naming the individual items as they go.
Some language game will be helpful this
type, for example puzzle, or give the learners pencil and paper they will make
a list of words drink, food, sport, clothes. Then one team read out their list
item by item. From the explanation above, it could be concluded that
organization of vocabulary in general to specific hierarchies could be achieved
by playing games.
4. Organization
of vocabulary through words and antonym
Some words that have meanings related
through antonym can be placed on lines or clines (sloping lines) that give a
picture of the degrees of difference example: hot-warm-cold. Organizing words by their related meaning can
help with memorizing and recycling more abstract words example:
always-usually-sometimes-never.
5. Organizing
vocabulary in ad hoc categories
Barsalou in Cameron (2001) stated that
this is the name given to collections of things put together on the spur of the
moment, example: things to take on a picnic. The unit has a set of vocabulary
items introduced through pictures: files, a typewriter, stapler, paper clips,
and envelopes.
B.3.5. Extending Children’s vocabulary beyond the text
book
The vocabulary of course book for young learners is so
predictable, start with words related to Family, the house, the school, and
work outwards from the child’s world, bringing in other countries, topics from
history and so on. Even though in FL teaching,
vocabulary input is limited. It is clear from talking to teachers that many
pupils either fail to learn, or forget, a lot of vocabulary they meet in their
early years.
Learners are getting more and interests through the
internet, television and video, and computer game. Theirs worlds are much
bigger, from much younger ages, and then used to be the case. It’s making easy
for young learners to take on much vocabulary.
Working outwards
from the text book
The learning process start from the topic of the text
book unit, and don’t stop with the words are given. The idea should conditional
with the topic that will help extend the words. For example of “Setting at the
Bank” that the teachers have already to make related between the topic of
learning and situational at the office. Vocabulary extension could begin by
asking what types of equipment would be needed for a really up to date office.
Then move into people who work there, and what jobs they do, then event that
happen there. The teacher can pick up the general specific organization words.
Learners’ choice
Vocabulary learning around the topic start from the
learner rather than from the book, by asking to learners what words they want
to know and words would like to learn in the FL. It is positive use of first
language to guide to the FL, and then translate by using translator or
dictionary.
Incidental
learning of vocabulary
Young learners learn from their first language words
from social interaction with the social environments, then use of stories in
the classroom then use the words mostly occur in their life.
B.4. Children’s
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
This section deals with the strategies used by
children or L2 learners in learning the new words or vocabulary found in the
second language process. When a student wants to say something in the second or
target language, s/he will find words more struggle than grammar or
pronunciation. The acquisition
vocabulary at first sight seems straightforward that you need a large number of
words to speak a language, hence, to gain and use the language, L2
learners have several strategies that might be
different one another in line with their own learning style. Their action helps
them understand and remember the vocabulary. Schmit (1997) proposed a
different definition related to vocabulary learning strategies, namely discovery and consolidation strategies where
discovery means a strategy used by the students to know a new word by finding
it in a dictionary or guessing it from its context. On the other hand,
consolidation strategy means a technique used in learning new words by asking
for help of somebody else to denote where he / she has been up to.
B.4.1. Empirical
evidence on the usefulness of strategies
According to Ahmed (1988), Schmit (1997), and
Schouten-van Parreren (1992), the strategy use changes with age and that the
successful and less successful students vary depend on what strategy they used
and on how they used it.
Most recent teaching methods, such as task-based
learning or communicative language teaching have focused mainly on the context
to define the meaning of a new word or on the traditional techniques such as
pictures, explanation and translation in to the students’ L1 (Cook, 2008).
Various strategies made by
a student had led to a recommendation for teachers to
encourage the students to adopt the following ways:
1)
Guessing meanings by
using all the information available in a
context,picture or a text
Imagining
you are in a hall when several students all over the world come together.
Suddenly, a Filipino student you have never met came upon you and fortunately,
you have already learnt few Filipino Language, when the student said “Hello,
pwede bang magkaroonakongupuandito?” you knew that this means “Hello, could I
have *……* here?” unfortunately, you miss a word “upuan”. What would a sentence
could be? “can I borrow your book?” “could I borrow this chair?” “can I sit
down here?” looking at the probabilities you decide the word “upuan” must mean
“seat” in English. This is a natural process of defining a meaning of unknown
words that we use daily in our first language. Meanwhile, I recently have read
a novel where I revealed the “menacing thoughts entered my mind” or “they are
testing a new firecracker”; none of these two words “menacing” and
“firecracker” are part of the words I am familiar with and yet I had to notice
this while reading. I had presumably decide that “menacing must be something
scary or bad while “firecracker” must be a term related to fireworks.
Guessing
is a much-used strategy in a second language. Although the word might seem
predictable, we could of course go for a wrong conclusion.
2)
Noticing grammatical
information about words from the way they are used
A
student should be aware of what word they have found. When they read a passage
or text, they should also be able to determine where that word is classified
into in terms of its part of speech. For instance, “menacing” is classified
into adjective and “firecracker” is classified into noun.
When
we have come up with a certainty that the word is classified into noun (e.g. firecracker)
it would make us easier to grasp its meaning by thinking of noun only in our
L1.
3)
Noticing links to
similar words in the first language
According
to Cook (2008), there may well be some links or relationship between the words
in L2 and L1. For example, “chair” in English and “chaise” in French, “tofu” in
English and “dòufu”in Chinese. Students could use this as a chance to
enhance their vocabulary as well as denoting the meaning or the word it refers
to.
4)
Remembering where a
word has been encountered before and how that helps with its form and meaning.
This
deals much with the repetition and rote learning where the student will be able
to figure out one word in one occasion and use it in future occasion. Cook
(2008) suggested that the commonest approach for the repetition would be sheer
practice where you have to repeat one word over and over again to finally
memorize it by heart.
B.4.2. Strategies
and young learners
Schmit (1997) as
cited in Cameron (2001) argued that different strategies exposed to a children
are necessary to help them choose and suit each of their individual learning
style. There are some general principles of helping children to learn, they
are:
1.
Teachers can model
how to use strategies and draw children’s attention explicitly to aspects of strategy use
Teachers
can demonstrate the meaning of a word by providing them a picture, or
translating the word in their L1. In addition, teachers can show a simple
strategy used by guessing the meaning of a word through its context, noticing grammatical information about words from the way
they are used, noticing
links to similar words in the first language,
and keep using the new word to make the students familiar with it.
2.
Teachers can teach
the sub-skills needed to make use of strategies
Different
strategies will absolutely require different skills, for instance, to find the
meaning of a word in a dictionary, (e.g. bilingual dictionary), the teachers
should notice their children to alphabetical orders to have effective and
efficient strategy. On the other hand, guessing the meaning from its context
would need a broad knowledge beyond the situation the students encounter. They
have to be able to analyze the situation and potential possibilities they can
decide to guess the meaning, however, teachers should also soothe their kid
that guessing might come to a wrong conclusion to avoid their frustration from
such kind of “failed prediction”. Noticing
grammatical information about words from the way they are used
could be elaborated by having the students familiar with the common criteria of
noun, adjective or verb. While nouns are generally described as things representing a person, thing, or an idea, verbs are
action or process that a subject is undergoing, and adjectives are words that
add description to things or noun. Generally, verbs or adjectives are always
following the nouns where adjectives should have explained the noun it precedes
in advance.
In
addition, the noticing links to
similar words in the first language would lead
students to realize and enhance their new word by figuring out the similar word
they have in their L1. When the students find new words, the teachers can guide
them to imagine the similar word or sound between the L2 and L1 and let the
students see what they can make. At this way, teachers should have broader
knowledge to link those words.
Finally,
teachers should be aware that new words will fade even loose easily right after
the student has learnt where no repetition and rote learning are made. Hence,
teachers should use this new term over and over again in the classroom and let
the students use it to their classmates in daily conversation to make the
students more familiar with it.
3.
Classroom tasks can
include structured opportunities for using the
strategies
As
the strategies change with age, teachers should be aware that the easiest way
of finding the meaning is through the dictionary, so, the teachers can provide
this chance at the very beginning to the children –basic children learning the
second language. As the older the children are, the more ‘sophisticated’
strategy should be employed for instance, guessing from its context, link it to
similar word they had in the L1, etc. So, different yet structured occasion for
using different strategies will work well.
4.
Independent strategy
use can be rehearsed in the classroom
Providing
the learners structured opportunities for using the strategies will train their
own awareness and independency. At this point, teachers will see how the
students ‘develop’ in terms of strategy use to find the meaning of new word and
teachers can facilitate and practice their strategy in the classroom to see in
what extent their students have been capable of.
5.
Young learners can be
helped to reflect on the learning process through evaluating their achievements
A
good teacher does not only teach the students but also observe and evaluate
children’s development. When teachers provide the students an input, they need
to ensure the appropriate output the students would have. Learning process is a
very crucial input for young learners and thus, teachers should help them
reflect on their learning process through evaluating their value. Teachers can
have a milestone to help her measure and evaluate the students’ achievement.
Through the value, teachers can lead the students to realize and reflect the
learning process they have been through. Reflection on a lesson or on their own
progress also allows them to build skills in critical thinking that they can
apply when they are problem-solving and learning on their own. Teachers
organize instruction so that students are the producers, not just the consumers
of knowledge.
C.
CONCLUSION
Vocabulary has been seen as a major resource for
language use. Early foreign language learning offers the chance for learners to
build up a solid core of words useful for further learning, together with words
that are learnt because they interest or excite young learners at that age.
However, early vocabulary learning may be ineffective if words are not
consolidated and use regularly. It should not be assumed that children know
what they have been taught, for example the content of their course books or
syllabus. They know what they have learnt. There are some perspectives related
to progression of vocabulary learning.
1. Over
the timescale of primary education, progression in conceptual development
impact on vocabulary learning.
2. Over
lesson and years, knowledge about particular words can be seen as a progression
from partial knowledge of their meaning, use and from to fuller knowledge.
3. Over
task and lessons, progression in vocabulary learning moves from receptive and
initial understanding of what a word means to be able to use it appropriately.
REFERENCES
Cameron, Lynne. 2001. Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Cook, V. 2008. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching 4th edition.
London: Hodder
Education.
Waxman, Sandra. 2016. Early Word Learning:
Handbook of Child Psychology, 6th
Edition,
Volume 2.Retrived from: http://groups.psych.northwestern.edu/waxman/WaxmanLidz.pdf
accesed
on October 21st , 2018.
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